Burbank’s Seed Germination Mix

The famous plant breeder Luther Burbank planted millions of seeds over his lengthy career. This is his favorite potting mix. Seeds were started in flats then transplanted to experimental gardens in Santa Rosa and Sebastopol.

50% coarse sand

40% topsoil = rotted turf or forest soil

10% peat moss

1% to 2% bone meal

Total = 101% to 102% by volume

Mix until uniform

For 1 bushel = 8 gallons use 1.25 to 2.5 cups of bone meal

[Original formula dated 1914 from Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, California]

Related Publications:  Burbank’s Grafting Wax; Cow Manure Potting Soil; Dutch Potting Soil; Hot versus Cold Composting.

Would You Like to Know More?  For more information on greenhouse management and potting soils, please visit: www.worldagriculturesolutions.com – or – send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com – or – send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania 15108 United States of America.

About the Author:  Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

Index Terms:  Greenhouse Management; Potting Soils.

Original Publication Date:  April 2008, Meyersdale, Pennsylvania.

Update:  October 2023, Evans City, Pennsylvania.

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Dutch Potting Soil

Historical Note:  This formula was perfected by Dutch horticulturalists in the 16th century. (The first written record in German is dated 1511). Just about any commercial greenhouse crop will grow in this mix called “One-One-One” or written 1-1-1.

How To Do It:  Following is the original recipe for the standard greenhouse potting mix used for the past 500 years. This mix contains only natural ingredients and so is suitable for “organic” production.

1 part “well-rotted turf” = topsoil.

1 part coarse sand.

1 part peat moss.

Total = 3 parts by volume.

Topsoil provides nutrients and biology. Coarse sand provides aeration and drainage. Peat moss holds water. Work components through a 1/2 inch screen before mixing. Use level not heaping measures. Pack peat firmly to get true volume.

How to Prepare Topsoil:  Use a spade to cut grass sod into blocks. Stack turf upside down to kill grass. Sod pile can be any convenient dimensions. Cover turf with straw or other mulch to keep soil moist and prevent weeds. Let sod compost for at least 6 months before use. For long term storage sow pile with a multiple species cover crop to keep soil “lively”.

Special Purpose Potting Mixes:

Fern Mix:  Add 1 extra part of peat moss.

(1 earth + 1 sand + 2 peat = 4 total parts by volume).

Cacti Mix:  Add 1 extra part of sand.

(1 earth + 2 sand + 1 peat = 4 total parts by volume).

Geranium Mix:  Add 1 extra part of topsoil.

(2 earth + 1 sand + 1 peat = 4 total parts by volume).

Earthworm Friendly Mix:  Substitute composted hardwood bark or composted wood chips for sand. Sand is abrasive; earthworms do not like soils with more than 10% sand.

(1 earth + 1 composted bark + 1 peat = 3 parts by volume).

Hand Mixing:  Layer ingredients on top of a potting bench: Peat moss on bottom, Topsoil in middle, then Sand on top. Sprinkle lime and fertilizer (if needed) over sand. Mix with a garden fork or flat spade. Slide fork or spade under pile then lift up and shake. Work from one end of the pile to the other end. Repeat 3 times until mixture is uniform. This is the easiest way to mix large quantities of potting soil by hand. (Layering by density uses gravity to make work easier. Heavy ingredients sift down through tines of fork or fall off edge of spade. The process of shaking a fork or spade to mix ingredients is called “feathering”).

Fertilizer:  The traditional greenhouse fertilizer is 1% or 2% bone meal by volume. For 1 bushel = 8 gallons of potting soil add 1.25 to 2.5 cups of organic fertilizer to the mix. For vegan potting soil substitute earthworm castings, cottonseed meal, or weed seed meal.

Substitutions:  If you do not have topsoil use clay subsoil sifted through a 1/2 inch screen. If sand is not available use any other aggregate or substitute composted hardwood bark or composted wood chips. If there is no peat use compost, leaf mold, composted manure, or composted sawdust.

Raised Beds:  To fill raised beds cheaply mix 1 part screened subsoil + 1 part wood chips + 1 part manure = 3 total parts by volume. Seed immediately with a multi-species cover crop. Let cover crop grow a full year before planting cash crops. Roots, earthworms, symbiotic fungi, and beneficial bacteria transform dead dirt into live topsoil.

Related Publications:  Burbank’s Grafting Wax; Burbank’s Seed Germination Mix; Cow Manure Potting Soil; Hot versus Cold Composting.

Would You Like to Know More?  For more information on greenhouse management and potting soils, please visit: www.worldagriculturesolutions.com – or — send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com – or — send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania 15108 United States of America.

About the Author:  Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

Index Terms:  1-1-1 (potting mix); Cacti Potting Mix; Dutch Potting Mix; Fern Potting Mix; Geranium Potting Soils; Greenhouse Management; Potting Mixes; Raised Beds; Vegan Potting Mix.

Original Publication Date:  March 1976 Meyersdale, Pennsylvania.

Update:  October 2023, Evans City, Pennsylvania.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 0

Clifton Park System

What Is It?  The Clifton Park System is a type of English Ley Farming where long periods of pasture are rotated with short periods of cereal and row crops. Deep rooted pasture plants rejuvenate the soil so that cash crops can be grown without need for manure or purchased fertilizers. In the Clifton Park System, 4 years of mixed species pasture are rotated with 2 years of turnips and cereals: Pasture + Pasture + Pasture + Pasture + Spring Turnips & Fall Grain + Spring Turnips & Fall Grain = 6 year total rotation cycle. Pasture time may be increased to 6 years if soils are thin or poor. The Clifton System works especially well with no-till agronomy and rotational grazing.

Agronomy Note:  There are 3 basic principles of ley farming: (1) Wide species diversity, (2) Deep rooted plants, and (3) intensive rotational grazing or mob grazing. Zero tillage improves agronomic performance.

How To Do It:  Following is a typical Clifton Park pasture mix. Note the wide biological diversity including 9 grasses + 4 legumes + 4 forbs = 17 total species.

Orchard Grass = Cocksfoot = Dactylus glomerata. 10 pounds per acre.

Meadow Fescue = Festuca pratensis. 5 pounds per acre.

Tall Fescue = Festuca elatior. 4 pounds per acre.

Oat Grass (tall) = Avena elatior. 3 pounds per acre.

Hard Fescue = Festuca trachyphylla. 1 pound per acre.

Rough Stalked Meadow Grass = Poa trivialis. 1/2 pound per acre.

Smooth Stalked Meadow Grass = Poa pratensis. 1 pound per acre.

Oat Grass (golden) = Celtica gigantea. 1/2 pound per acre.

Italian Rye Grass = Lolium italicum. 3 pounds per acre.

Dutch White Clover = Trifolium repens. 2 pounds per acre.

Alsike Clover = Trifolium hybridum. 1 pound per acre.

Red Clover = Trifolium pratense. 2 pounds per acre.

Kidney Vetch = Anthyllis vulneraria. 2 1/2 pounds per acre.

Chicory = Cichorium intybus. 3 pounds per acre.

Burnet = Sanguisorba minor. 8 pounds per acre.

Sheep Parsley = Petroselenium crispum. 1 pound per acre.

Yarrow = Achillea millefolium. 1/2 pound per acre.

TOTAL: 48 pounds Clifton Park Pasture Seed Mixture.

Pasture Management:  Clifton Park was a sheep ranch in England at the turn of the 20th century (1900). Your farm and herd will be different. Do not be afraid to change or add species to the base mixture. For best results, choose a wide variety of deep-rooted perennials. Remember to rotate livestock daily so pastures have time to regrow. Adjust grazing cycles so plants can flower and reseed.

Related Publications:  Biblical Agronomy; Biological Agriculture in Temperate Climates; Crop Rotation Primer; Earthworm Primer; The Edge Effect; Intensive Rotational Grazing Primer; Strip Cropping Primer; The Twelve Apostles (12 species cover crop mix).

Other Articles of Interest:  Building Soils with Multiple Species Cover Crops, Butler, Pennsylvania 1956 – 1996.

Would You Like to Know More?  For more information on ley farming and intensive rotational grazing, please visit: www.worldagriculturesolutions.com – or – Send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com – or – send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania 15108 United States of America.

About the Author:  Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties.

Index Terms:  Alsike Clover (Trifolium hybridum); Burnet (Sanguisorba minor); Chicory (Cichorium intybus); Clifton Park (ley farming system); Crop Rotation; Dutch White Clover (Trifolium repens); Golden Oat Grass (Celtica gigantea); Hard Fescue (Festuca trachyphylla); Italian Rye Grass (Lolium italicum); Kidney Vetch Anthyllis vulneraria); Ley Farming; Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis); Multiple Species Forage Crops; Oat Grass (Avena elatior); Orchard Grass (Dactylus glomerata); Pasture Management; Polycultures; Red Clover (Trifolium pratense); Rough Meadow Grass (Poa trivialis); Sheep Parsley (Petroselenium crispum); Sheep Ranching; Smooth Meadow Grass (Poa pratensis); Tall Fescue (Festuca elatior); Yarrow (Achillea millefolium).

Original Publication Date:  February 1963, Florida, Uruguay.

Update:  October 2023, Evans City, Pennsylvania.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 0

CAMAS PRIMER

What is It? Camas is a perennial wildflower with an edible bulb that, when baked, tastes like a sweet potato. Camas was a staple crop for Indians living in northwest America.

Scientific Name: Camassia quamash = Camassia esculenta = Camas = Common Camas. A larger, closely related species is called Camassia leichtlini = Camassia esculenta maxima = Camassia quamash maxima = Giant Camassia. Camassia is in the Asparagaceae = Asparagus Family. (Earlier classifications place camas in the Liliaceae = Lily Family).

Agronomy Note: For highest yields, plant Giant Camassia = Camassia leichtlini. Giant camas bulbs are double the size of common camas = Camassia quamash.

Growth Habit: Camas is a slow-growing perennial. Plants take 3 to 5 years to flower. Bulbs grow only 1 or 2 leaves per year. Rule-of-Thumb: Camas plants take 4 to 6 years to grow harvest-size bulbs.

Pollination: Camas is self-incompatible. Flowers need cross-pollination by insects.

Height: 18 to 36 inches tall, depending on species. Mature Camassia quamash maxima plants are 24 to 30+ inches tall. Camassia quamash = common camas plants are smaller, 18 to 24 inches.

Leaves: Mature camas plants have ribbon-like leaves 1 inch wide and up to 20 inches long. Seedling leaves look like lawn grass. A good way to estimate the age of camas plants is to count the number of leaves, 1 or 2 leaves for every year of growth.

Flowers: Camas flowers are blue or purple with 6 petals. Large camas meadows may have a few mutant plants with white flowers. These should be dug up and replanted elsewhere to avoid any possible confusion with “Death Camas” which also has white flowers.

Seed Capsules: Ripe seed capsules are tan or light brown and measure 0.2 to 0.7 inch long. Capsules have 3 cells each containing 5 to 10 black seeds. Capsules thresh easily and chaff may be separated with a small fan.

Seeds: Camas seeds are black, oval or elliptical, and about the size of a small peppercorn. Seeds measure approximately 2.8 millimeters long x 1.8 millimeters wide x 1.8 millimeters deep. Seeds store 2 to 5 years in a glass jar at room temperature.

Seed Weight: Camas seed weights vary widely depending on species, location, and growing conditions. 1 Camassia quamash maxima seed weighs approximately 0.007 gram = 0.0002469 ounce. Average Thousand Seed Weight = 7 grams = 142,560 seeds per kilogram = 4,050 seeds per ounce = 64,800 seeds per pound. Camassia quamash (common camas) seeds range from 220,000 to 257,400 seeds per kilogram = 100,000 to 117,000 seeds per pound.

Bulbs: Camas bulbs look like small onions, 1 to 3 inches in diameter. Harvest size bulbs measure approximately 0.75 inch in diameter. Average bulb weight = 0.20 to 0.143 ounce = 5.67 to 4.054 grams = 3 to 5 bulbs per ounce.

Warning: If harvesting wild camas, only gather plants with blue or purple flowers. The “Death Camas” has WHITE flowers. Wild camas and death camas both have bulbs that look alike.

Propagation by Seed: Sow seeds in Autumn (October or November) when weather cools. Spread fields with straw then burn to kill grass, weeds, and shrubs. Drill seeds with a no-till planter at 5 pounds per acre in rows spaced 6 to 14 inches apart. Furrows should be 1/4 to 1/8th inch deep. Broadcast 10 pounds of seed per acre then harrow lightly or gently roll to press seed into the soil surface. Alternatively, cover seeds with a thin layer of peat or similar mulch not more than 1/2 inch deep. Shallow seed depth is critically important — deeply sown seeds will not germinate. Seeds should be pelleted for best economy. Mix clay with phosphate rock or bone meal to coat seeds.

Propagation by Bulbs, Offsets, or Cloves: Plant bulbs 4 to 6 inches deep. Plant cloves 2 to 3 inches deep. Plant bulblets = offsets 3/4 to 1 inch deep. Set bulbs, offsets, and cloves pointy side up. Space plants 6 inches apart, equidistantly = 174,240 plants per acre. Bulbs take 2 or 3 years to reach harvest size. Do not gather bulbs until plants bloom. (Plants may take 5 years to flower).

Agronomy Note: Most camas plants only form bulbs and offsets, but some make cloves. For highest yields, plant cloves in fields isolated from bulbs. Cloves can out-yield bulbs by 400% to 500%. Cloves take 2 or 3 years to make harvest-size bulbs. Seedlings take 5 or 6 years to reach harvest size.

Chilling Requirement: Seeds must be vernalized = stratified or they will not germinate. Seeds and bulbs must have 60 to 90 days of cold weather or refrigeration at 34 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Bulbs will not flower unless properly chilled. Seeds must be chilled in MOIST = DAMP soil or they will not sprout.

Dormancy: Not all camas seeds or bulbs will sprout when expected. Bulbs and seeds can “sleep” for 2 years before germination. This may be due to complex dormancy or poor growing conditions = planting holes too deep, soil too dry, or climate too warm. 10% to 15% of camas seeds and bulbs may be recalcitrant = not germinate on time. Remember that camas is a wild plant with unpredictable behavior. Be patient and let nature take its course.

Soil: Camas thrives in moist clay loams with high organic mater contents. Topsoils that are well aggregated and drain freely are ideal for camas growth. Forest clearings, old beaver meadows, and river flood plains are good locations for planting camas.

Lime: Camas are like tulips or onions. They grow best in slightly acidic soils = pH 6.5 to 6.8. To balance overly acidic soils, apply 1 ton per acre of agricultural limestone, crushed shells, or wood ashes yearly.

Fertilizer: Camas is a wild plant that relies on natural soil fertility. Only small amounts of nutrients are needed. Chemical fertilizers should be applied sparingly to growing plants only. 40 pounds of elemental phosphorus per acre is sufficient for good bulb production. Use phosphate rock powder or bone meal for organic plantings. Deposit 1 level teaspoon (2,527 pounds phosphate rock or 2,165 pounds bone meal per acre) in the bottom of each planting hole. Set the bulb or clove directly on top of the powder. Alternatively, broadcast fertilizer in early Spring when plants are actively growing.

Rule-of-Thumb: Think of camas as a midget onion or tulip that does not need much plant food. Cut fertilizer application rates by 80%, especially nitrogen. Too much nitrogen decreases bulb yields.

Micro-Nutrients: Some soils are deficient in micro-nutrients like boron, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, and other vital minerals. Micro-nutrient deficiencies are easily corrected by applying 500 pounds per acre of fritted trace elements once every 5 years. Alternatively, provide trace element salt blocks to cattle grazing in rotation. Micro-nutrients are spread over fields as cows defecate.

Sunlight: Camas tolerates light shade but grows best in open fields or meadows with 8 or more hours of sunlight daily.

Water: Camas thrives in temperate climates with 40 or more inches of precipitation (rain and snow). Irrigate 1 inch weekly, as needed, until flowers begin to fade. If irrigation is not possible, plant camas near ponds, streams, springs, seasonal wetlands, swales, or anywhere soil is moist.

Grazing: Animals may be pastured on camas fields any time bulbs are dormant. Fence camas meadows tightly to keep out pigs. Hogs dig up and eat camas bulbs.

Harvest: Wild meadows should be harvested when plants are blooming to avoid confusion with “death camas”. Edible camas has blue or purple flowers. Death camas has white flowers. Cultivated fields may be gathered any time after foliage dies back. For best yields harvest camas fields by hand. Gather bulbs with a garden fork, shovel, trowel, foot plow, or a stout digging stick. Retain large bulbs (at least 0.75-inch diameter). Replant small bulbs and offsets. Separate bulbs with cloves from round bulbs. Plant cloves in another field. Dig out and discard any plant with white flowers.

Agronomy Note: Sort bulbs and offsets by size and replant in separate plots. This will make future harvests easier and more productive. Save the very largest bulbs for seed production or breeding.

Camas Field Management: Camas is a wild plant best left alone. Little management is necessary or desirable. Fields should be burned periodically to kill grass, shrubs, and trees. Because camas grows very slowly, it is convenient to harvest fields on a 5 or 6-year rotation cycle. This allows plants sufficient time to grow optimum size bulbs. Be patient. Wait until camas plants flower before gathering bulbs. ONLY HARVEST PLANTS WITH BLUE OR PURPLE FLOWERS.

Yield: 330 pounds per acre is a good annual yield from a wild camas meadow. Remember: Do not dig up a plant unless it is blooming. Keep big bulbs. Replant little bulbs. DESTROY ANY PLANT WITH WHITE FLOWERS.

Cooking: Camas bulbs contain large amounts of indigestible inulin that cause severe bloating and flatulence. Prolonged heat converts inulin into fructose, a simple sugar easily digested. Wash bulbs thoroughly, remove skins and roots, then wash again. Place clean, wet bulbs into a steamer basket then COOK GENTLY AT 212 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT FOR 36 HOURS until bulbs caramelize = turn dark brown like pancake syrup or molasses. (Replenish steam by adding water every 2 to 4 hours). Alternatively, enclose wet bulbs in a tightly sealed roasting pan then bake gently at 200 degrees Fahrenheit for 36 hours. Low, moist heat is essential to prevent camas bulbs from burning. Properly cooked camas bulbs are very sweet, approximately 34% fructose by wet weight. Baked or steamed bulbs taste like sweet potatoes.

Drying: Caramelized camas bulbs should be flattened so they dry faster. Dehydrate for 24 hours at 200 degrees Fahrenheit to prevent bulbs from burning.

Storage: Dry camas bulbs keep fresh for years if stored in air-tight containers. Dry air and high sugar content prevent spoilage.

Nutritional Analysis: Camas food values vary widely depending on location and growing conditions. There might also be genetic variation as well. The following numbers are averages expressed as percent by oven dry weight of raw (uncooked) bulbs: Protein = 9% to 15%. Total Carbohydrates (sugars, starches, and fiber) = 80%. Sugars and Starches = 37% to 65%. Fiber = 3% to 22%. Lipids (fats, oils, and waxes) = 3% to 12%. Minerals (and other residuals) = 4%. Caloric Value = 390 calories per 100 grams of fresh (uncooked) camas bulbs. Sample size = 200 bulbs from 10 wild camas meadows. Note: Inulin is the principal carbohydrate in camas bulbs. Cooking converts indigestible inulin into digestible fructose. Samples of baked or steamed bulbs contain approximately 34% fructose by wet weight. Translation: Baked camas bulbs are nearly twice as sweet as a ripe (spotted) banana.

Market Potential: Camas bulbs have little or no market potential now or in the foreseeable future. Long growing times, low yields, and high harvest and processing costs make this crop unsuitable even for upscale niche markets. Nobody wants to spend 36 hours to cook a sweet potato the size of a quarter. 20 years of plant breeding and agronomy might change this outlook. Camas might eventually have a specialty market like canned yams. At the moment, the only market for camas seeds and bulbs is for planting wildflower gardens.

Related Publications: Biological Agriculture in Temperate Climates; Crops Among the Weeds; Managing Weeds as Cover Crops; Trash Farming; Wildcrafted Potatoes.

Would You Like to Know More? For more information on biological agriculture and root crops, please visit: http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com –or — send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com — or — mail your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, 15108 United States of America.

About the Author: Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

Index Terms: American Indian Agriculture; Camas (Camassia quamash); Edible Wild Plants; Fructose; Giant Camas (Camassia leichtlini); Indians of North America (agriculture); Inulin; Perennial Crops; Root Crops; Wildflowers.

Original Publication Date: November 1972, Warren, Pennsylvania.

Update: August 2023, Venus, Florida.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 0

Basin Irrigation on the Nile, Cairo, Egypt 1870

The Egyptian agricultural year has 3 seasons: The Inundation lasts 4 months from June through September. The Growing Season lasts 5 months from October through February. The Harvest Season lasts 3 months from March through May.

The Nile floodplain is enclosed by dikes to form large basins each containing at least 5,000 acres. Flood waters are regulated by sluice gates. Water is held 30 to 60 days until silt settles and soil is thoroughly saturated. Excess water drains into canals or lower basins. Fields are sown quickly to take advantage of soil moisture. Irrigation is not practical for grain crops so only one planting is made yearly. As there is no rain, cereals must grow and mature solely on water stored in the soil. If the Inundation fails, so do the crops.

When the Inundation at Cairo reaches full height, 1 acre-foot of flood water contains 4.14% silt by weight or approximately 10% by volume = 112,500 pounds per acre or about 2.5 pounds per square foot.

Nile silt averages 0.67% Nitrogen compounds, 0.34% Phosphate, 0.32% Potassium salts, and 1.53% Calcium Carbonate by weight. 1 acre-foot of flood water provides 753 pounds of nitrogen, 382 pounds of phosphate, 360 pounds of potassium salts, and 1,721 pounds of calcium carbonate per acre. These values are unexpectedly generous and may be in error.

[Editor’s Note: The math is not in error. The calculations are correct. The original laboratory results might be suspect. More likely, samples taken from the Nile at High Flood have little relation to the amount of silt actually deposited on basin fields. Substantial amounts of mud settle out as flood waters travel through canals and basins in series. The “real” answer will never be known as the modern Aswan Dam prevents the Nile from flooding].

Silt deposits vary widely depending on distance from the Nile. Riverside fields may receive 1 1/4 inches of silt while basins far from the river get only 1/5th to 1/4 inch or approximately 9,000 to 15,000 pounds per acre.

Canals trap much sit and must be dredged regularly to maintain sufficient volume for irrigation. When the Inundation is low or fields located at the edge of the floodplain, silt deposits are minimal, barely 1/16th inch or 3,800 pounds per acre, approximately 1.4 ounces per square foot.

Yearly silt deposits at El Mansura average 0.20% by weight of floodwater = 36 pounds of nitrogen compounds, 18 pounds of phosphate, 17 pounds of potassium salts, and 83 pounds of calcium carbonate per acre.

Silt deposits are insufficient to maintain soil fertility on most fields in the Delta. Crops must be rotated to sustain yields. Wheat followed by soup beans and then Egyptian clover is the most common rotation cycle.

The annual Inundation is periodic but not predictable. Water volumes vary widely while timing is more consistent. Floods peak in June at Luxor and October in the Delta. The typical flood is 1.5 meters or about 5 feet deep and lasts 4 o 6 weeks. Yearly change in river level is more dramatic: 45 feet at Luxor and 25 feet at Cairo.

When floods are normal, Wheat averages 33 bushels per acre, Barley produces 39 bushels per acre, Maize yields 103 bushels per acre, and Dried Beans make 35 bushels per acre. When flood waters are low, yields may drop 75%. High floods produce bountiful crops, up to 178 bushels of maize per acre. Record yields occur rarely, perhaps once every decade. 3 years out of 10, Nile floods are poor and Egypt starves. Extreme floods also come about once every 10 years and do great damage to irrigation systems.

There is talk of building a dam at Aswan to widen the flood and better regulate irrigation, but opinion is divided as no one has ever attempted a work of this magnitude. The demand for cotton is such that a dam might be financially practical if loans are made by a syndicate of European banks. At present, the cost of such a venture is far too great for the Egyptian Government to bear.

Irrigated Delta cotton yields 375 pounds per acre on Nile mud. Fields spread with 8 donkey carts = 1 short ton of pigeon manure average 768 pounds of fiber per acre. Fields distant from the Nile must be dunged because there is not enough mud to feed the crops. Irrigated fruits and vegetables under date palms receive 10 to 15 tons of common barnyard manure per acre.

The Nile valley is noted for its extreme heat and intense sunlight. Crops is open fields often fail even when irrigated. Consequently, Egyptian farmers plant date palms for shade. Wheat, alfalfa, and vegetables thrive under the palms.

Cotton grows in open fields and is often sown with Egyptian clover. Cotton is planted on the ridges and clover sown in the irrigation furrows.

Local weights and measures are similar to English usage. 1 Feddan = 1.03 acres. 1 Kantar = 99.05 pounds.

[Editor’s Notes: Original transcription from: “Trading Down the Nile”, circa 1870, by Johann Michael Kristoff Koperek, 1811 – 1908. JMK Koperek was a landholder, a student of the soil chemist von Liebig, and the owner of a trading house (import-export business). 1 short ton = 2,000 pounds. 1 long ton = 2,240 pounds].

Related Publications: Biblical Agronomy; Biological Agriculture in Temperate Climates; Crop Rotation Primer.

Would You Like to Know More? For more information on biological agriculture, please visit: http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com — or — send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com — or — send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, 15108 United States of America.

About the Editor: Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

Index Terms: Agriculture (in Egypt); Barley = Hordeum vulgare; Basin Irrigation; Berseem Clover = Trifolium alexandrinum; Companion Crops; Corn = Zea mays; Cotton = Gossypium hirsutum; Cotton Farming; Crop Rotation; Dried Beans = Phaseous vulgaris; Egyptian Clover = Trifolium alexandrinum; Manure (as fertilizer); Nile River (annual floods); Pigeon Manure (as fertilizer); Polycrops; Ridge and Furrow Irrigation; Soup Beans = Phaseolus vulgaris; Wheat = Triticum aestivum; Wheat Farming.

Original Publication Date: circa 1870, Vienna, Austria, by Johann Michael Kristoff Koperek, 1811 – 1908.

Update: August 2023, Venus, Florida.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 0

Biological Control of Citrus Greening

Summary: This 23-year experiment looks at how orange trees grow in a multiple-species cover crop of 29 native weeds and 60 companion plants. A small grove of 27 trees is followed from crop year 2000 (before citrus greening) through 2022. (Citrus greening appeared in Florida around 2005). Live tree number dropped from 27 to 24. Average early season fruit Brix dropped from 14.6 to 11.5%. Mean late season Brix declined from 16.0 to 12.9% Average fruits per tree decreased from 200 to 140. Average market fruit weight dropped from 7.33 to 4.5 ounces. Mixed species cover crops are not a cure-all for citrus greening, but they enable orange trees to live with the disease and produce fruit of acceptable quality.

Experimental Location: Venus, Highlands County, Florida, United States of America. Zip Code: 33960. 27.0670 degrees North Latitude. 81.3571 degrees West Longitude.

Climate: Venus has a humid subtropical climate with a distinct monsoon season. The wet months are June through September (31 inches of rain). The dry months are November through January (6 inches of rain). Elevation = 82 feet above sea level. Average Annual Temperature = 72.5 degrees Fahrenheit. The warmest month is July (High = 92 degrees Fahrenheit). The coldest month is January (Low = 48 degrees Fahrenheit). Average Annual Rainfall = 52 inches. Average First Frost (36 degrees Fahrenheit) = 21 December. Average Last Frost in Spring (36 degrees Fahrenheit) = 20 February. Frost Free Growing Season = 317 days = approximately 10 months. Note: Venus is the warmest area in Florida. Frosts are rare and unpredictable.

Experimental Design: A small grove of 27 trees is monitored over 23 years for longevity (age), fruit quality (percent sugar content), and yield (fruit number and weight). Sugar content in degrees Brix is measured with a refractometer by sampling juice of 10 early season and 10 late season fruits from each tree. (1 degree Brix = 1 percent sugar content by weight = 1.5 ounces of sugar in 1 gallon of pure water). 23 years of data ensure reliable averages for comparison with commercial orchards.

Soil Type: Sandy Gravel. South Florida soils are deficient in most primary nutrients and trace elements. The best management practice for these problem soils is to keep fields “green” all year long. Growing plants add organic matter to the soil and live roots feed sugar to beneficial micro-organisms.

Rotation: Experimental orchard was planted in 1970 on pasture seeded with multiple species forages. It is good practice to plant citrus on fresh ground = hay fields or meadows 7 or 8 years old. Long rotations cure “orchard syndrome” = buildup of nematodes and diseases that make trees sick and cut yields by 30 to 50 percent.

Variety: Citrus sinensis cultivated variety “Cyprus”. This is a “vintage” variety imported from the island of Cyprus in 1880. Cyprus oranges are large and sweet, about the size of a grapefruit = 13 to 18 ounces and 14 to 20 degrees Brix. Cyprus oranges grown in Florida are smaller (7 to 14 ounces) and contain less sugar (14 to 16 degrees Brix for late season fruit).

Spacing: Experimental trees are plated 30 feet equidistantly = 48 trees per acre to promote maximum airflow through the orchard and optimum light penetration into the canopy. For comparison, most modern Florida orchards have 70 trees per acre spaced 25 feet apart.

Cultivation: Experimental orchard was not plowed, disked, harrowed, or cultivated. Weeds and cover crops were allowed to grow without interference. Orchard was mowed once yearly just before harvest.

Agronomy Note: Conventional tillage of South Florida soils is a pointless waste of effort. Plowing sandy gravels merely stirs up more rocks. Cultivation destroys the network of beneficial fungi upon which orange trees depend for water and minerals.

Fertilizer: No nitrogen fertilizers (chemical or organic) were used in this experiment. Legumes and independent soil bacteria supplied nitrogen for orange trees. 1 ton each of clay, phosphate rock, and greensand were broadcast yearly over every acre. 500 pounds of fritted trace elements were applied to each acre every 5th year.

Agronomy Notes: Small amounts of clay, about 3/4 ounce per square foot yearly, help sandy soils hold water and nutrients for better plant growth. Only modest amounts of clay are needed to “strengthen” sandy fields, never more than 10 percent by weight in the top 6 inches of soil. Adding excess clay reduces porosity and makes soil too sticky.

Micro-nutrients are mixed with molten soft glass then crushed into coarse sand called “frit”. Minerals are released slowly as the glass dissolves in the soil.

Herbicide: No herbicides were used in this experiment. Weeds and cover crops were allowed to grow with “wild abandon” to encourage maximum populations of beneficial insects. The trees did not seem to mind competition from their companions even when occasional vines climbed into the branches. Errant vines were removed by hand and the orchard mowed immediately before harvest.

Fungicide: No fungicides were used in this trial. Widely spaced trees grown in weeds are remarkably healthy even when infected by citrus greening.

Insecticide: No insecticides (synthetic or natural) have ever been used in this orchard. One of the significant advantages of growing citrus with many companion plants is that trees do not require spraying. Large populations of native predators and parasites keep pests below economic threshold levels.

Irrigation: Experimental trees are irrigated by overhead sprinklers installed when the orchard was planted in 1970. Trees receive 2 inches of water weekly, as needed.

Harvest: Experimental trees were harvested by hand. All attempts to use robots have failed miserably. Machine intelligence and artificial vision systems cannot handle random limbs and branches. No robot has ever picked more than 60% of available fruit even when citrus trees were espaliered and trained on wires. Machine harvest of oranges remains a faint hope far in the future.

60-Species Cover Crop with 48% Legumes:

29 legumes (48.33%) + 15 forbs (25%) + 11 grasses (18.33%) + 5 root crops (8.33%) = 60 total species (99.99%).

We plant a little bit of whatever cover crop seeds are available. Our goal is broad genetic diversity. Wide variety supports the maximum number of beneficial insects and micro-organisms. Admittedly, this is “black box” science. We do not know how the biology works but orange trees somehow manage to survive and ripen good fruit. Cover crops are not a panacea for citrus greening but sowing seeds is far less costly than alternative treatments.

Alfalfa = Lucerne = Medicago sativa

Birdsfoot Trefoil = Lotus corniculatus

Black Medic = Medicago lupulina

Buckwheat = Fagopyrum esculentum

Butterfly Pea = Centrosema rotundifolium

Canary Seed = Phalaris canariensis

Caraway = Carum carvi

Centro = Centrosema pubescens = Centrosema molle

Clitoria = Clitoria ternatea

Cowpea = Vigna unguiculata

Crimson Clover = Trifolium incarnatum

Deer Vetch = Aeschynomene americana

Dill = Anethum graveolens

Dutch White Clover = Trifolium repens

Egyptian Clover = Trifolium alexandrinum

Fenugreek = Trigonella foenum-graecum

Flax Seed = Linum usitatissimum

Forage Kale = Brassica oleracea sabellica

Forage Maize = Zea mays

Forage Pea = Pisum sativum

Forage Sorghum = Sorghum bicolor x Sorghum sudanense

Forage Soybean = Glycine max = Glycine soja

Forage Turnip = Brassica campestris rapa

Frost Bean = Vicia faba minor

Garden Radish = Raphanus sativus

Grain Sorghum = Milo = Sorghum bicolor

Hairy Indigo = Indigofera hirsuta

Jack Bean = Canavalia ensiformis

Lupine (blue) = Lupinus polyphyllus

Mexican Sunflower = Tithonia rotundifolia

Mung Bean = Green Gram = Vigna radiata

Oat = Avena sativa

Okra = Abelmoschus esculentus

Partridge Pea = Cassia rotundifolia = Chamaecrista species

Pearl Millet = Pennisetum glaucum

Phacelia = Phacelia tanacetifolia

Pigeon Pea = Cajanus cajan

Plantain = Plantago major

Rape Seed = Rape Seed = Brassica napus

Red Clover = Trifolium pratense

Red Lentil = Lens culinaris

Rice (African) = Oryza glaberrima

Rice (Indian) = Oryza sativa indica

Rice (Oriental) = Oryza sativa japonica

Rutabaga = Brassica napus napobrassica

Safflower = Carthamus tinctorius

Scarlet Runner Bean = Phaseolus coccineus

Sesame = Sesamum indicum

Sesbania = Sesbania exaltata

Stock Beet = Magelwurzel = Beta vulgaris

Sugar Beet = Beta vulgaris saccharum

Sunflower = Helianthus annuus

Sunn Hemp = Crotalaria juncea

Sweet Clover = Meliotus officinalis

Sweet Sorghum = Sorghum bicolor saccharum

Velvet Bean = Mucuna pruriens

Winter Barley = Hordeum vulgare

Winter Rye = Secale cereale

Winter Vetch = Vicia villosa

Winter Wheat = Triticum aestivum

Agronomy Notes: Cover crop seeds may be mixed with corn meal, weed seed meal, or similar carrier for more even distribution. Use a no-till drill and sow not less than 20 pounds per acre in 2-inch-deep furrows spaced 7 inches apart. Alternatively, mow field first, broadcast seed, then make 1 pass only with a rear-tine rototiller set 2 inches deep. Cover crops may also be surface seeded = Sow-and-Mow: Broadcast seed into standing weeds 5 to 6 feet tall then immediately mow to cover and protect seed. Prompt and frequent irrigation is essential to speed germination of surface sown seeds.

Sesbania exaltata is a useless weed to many South Florida growers. All varieties of sesbania are legumes that fix 130 pounds of nitrogen per acre every 60 days when grown in monocultures. The difference between a “weed” and a useful plant is often careful management.

Common Agricultural Weeds in Highland County:

Following is a list of 28 weed species most common on South Florida farms. These are only the most bothersome weeds. There are many other species in fields around Venus. Subtropical warmth encourages rapid plant growth so weed competition is constant on agricultural fields. The only biologically effective way to manage weeds is to keep ground covered with live crops year-round. Shade and intense competition prevent weeds from becoming established.

American Black Nightshade = Solanum americanum

Annual Ryegrass = Lolium multiflorum

Bristly Starbur = Acanthospermum hispidium

Bull Thistle = Cirsium vulgare

Cocklebur = Xanthium strumarium

Coffee Senna = Senna occidentalis

Crabgrass = Digitaria sanguinalis

Fall Panicum = Panicum dichotomiflorum

Florida Beggarweed = Desmodium tortuosum

Goosegrass = Eleusine indica

Hairy Nightshade = Solanum physalifolium

Johnsongrass = Sorghum halepense

Lambsquarters = Chenopodium album

Morning Glory = Ipomoea purpurea

Palmer Amaranth = Amaranthus palmeri

Pigweed = Amaranthus blitum

Purple Nutsedge = Cyperus rotundus

Purselane = Purslane = Portulaca oleracea

Ragweed = Ambrosia artemisifolia

Ragweed Parthenium = Parthenium hysterophorus

Redroot Pigweed = Amaranthus retroflexus

Sandbur = Cenchrus echinatus

Sickle Pod = Senna obtusifolia

Smooth Pigweed = Amaranthus hybridus

Spanish Needle = Bidens alba

Spiny Amaranth = Amaranthus spinosus

Texas Panicum = Urochloa texana

Yellow Nutsedge = Cyperus esculentus

Experimental Measurement: Harvested fruits were weighed on a digital platform scale accurate to 1/100th pound. All numbers are rounded down to the nearest 1/10th pound.

Summary of Experimental Results:

Effect of Citrus Tree Greening on Orange Tree Growth

Trees spaced 30 x 30 feet apart, planted in 1970. Cyperus Orange grafted on Trifoliate Orange rootstock. Irrigated orchard covered with native weeds and 60-species companion plant mix mowed only before harvest. 1 ton each of clay, phosphate rock, and greensand broadcast per acre yearly. 500 pounds per acre of fritted trace elements applied every 5 years.

Harvest Year 2000

Tree Number = 27

Early Season Fruit Brix = 14.1%

Late Season Fruity Brix = 16.0%

Fruits per Tree = 200

Market Fruit Weight = 7.3 oz

Yield per Tree = 91.2 lb

Note: Degrees Brix is a measure of “soluble solids” = sugar content. 1 degree Brix = 1 percent sugar.

Harvest Year 2022

Tree Number = 24

Early Season Fruit Brix = 11.5%

Late Season Fruit Brix = 12.9%

Fruits per Tree = 140

Market Fruit Weight = 4.5 oz

Yield per Tree = 39.3 lb

Commentary: 39 pounds of fruit per tree is nothing to cheer about unless the alternative is bulldozing an entire orchard. Growing orange trees in “weeds” has 3 distinct advantages:

(1) Companion plants help rejuvenate trees so they have productive lives exceeding 50 years. Most trees infected with citrus greening live only 15 years or less.

(2) Multiple species cover crops enable orange trees to ripen fruits with high sugar contents, 11.5 to 12.9 degrees Brix. These values compare favorably with oranges from California where citrus greening has not yet spread.

(3) Trees grown in weeds do not have economically significant insect problems. Experimental trees remain unsprayed after 54 years. Companion plants provide food, shelter, and alternate hosts for beneficial predators and parasites. The good bugs eat the bad bugs.

Little is known about the interaction between species in a cover crop mix. Even less is known about the interrelationships between myriad species of soil micro-organism and plant roots. What is known is that a lively trade exists between plants and symbiotic fungi. Roots provide sugar to fungi in exchange for water and minerals. Perhaps complex organic compounds are traded as well. Fungi make anti-biotics to protect themselves from bacteria. Citrus greening is a bacterial disease. Could anti-bacterial chemicals be responsible for keeping orange trees healthy?

Related Publications: Biological Agriculture in Temperate Climates; Crops Among the Weeds; Living Mulches for Weed Control; Managing Weeds as Cover Crops; The Twelve Apostles (multi-species cover crop); Trash Farming; Weed Seed Meal Fertilizer.

Would You Like to Know More? For more information on biological agriculture and multi-species cover crops please visit: http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com — or — mail your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania 15108 United States of America — or — send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com.

About the Author: Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

Index Terms: Biological Agriculture; Biological Insect Control; Candidatus liberibacter asiaticus (citrus greening bacteria); Companion Plants; Citrus Greening (disease); Cyprus Orange (Citrus sinensis cultivated variety Cyprus); Huanglongbing (citrus greening disease); Multiple Species Cover Crops; Orange Fruit Brix; Orchard Floor Management; Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis); Trifoliate Orange Root Stock (Citrus trifoliata); Weeds (as cover crop).

Publication Date: June 2023, Homestead, Florida.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 2

HOW TO GROW ELEPHANT GARLIC

Botanical Name: Allium ampeloprasum cultivated variety “Elephant Garlic”. From the Greek ampelo = vine, and prasum = leek. Ampeloprasum = vine leek = wild leek = sand leek. Allium ampeloprasum contains hundreds of botanical varieties. “Elephant Garlic” is one of these.

Botanical Family: Amaryllidaceae = Amaryllis Family. Elephant Garlic is in the same botanical family as chives, common garlic, leeks, onions, ramps, and shallots.

Common Names: Bulb Leek = Cyprian Garlic = Elephant Garlic = Giant Garlic = Great Garlic = Great-Headed Garlic = Tahiti Garlic = Ulpicum (Latin).

Origin: Giant garlic was known to both the Greeks and Romans, so its origin is lost in the “mists of history”. Wild populations of giant garlic are unknown so this variety probably exists only in cultivation. Most species of wild leeks are found in Turkey, Iran (Persia), and Afghanistan, so this area might be the center of origin or domestication. Luther Burbank introduced a variety of giant garlic in his 1920 seed catalog. The name “Elephant Garlic” was first registered by Jim Nichols of Nichols Garden Nursery (1136 Main Street, Philomath, Oregon 97370) in 1953. Most elephant garlic grown in the United States is genetically similar to giant garlic cultivated in central and eastern Europe.

Varieties: There are no commercial hybrids or named varieties of elephant garlic. Available propagation materials are unimproved “landraces” = “farmers varieties”.

Culinary Description: Elephant garlic is closely related to leek and has a similar mild flavor. Leaves and stems (when young) are edible and used like chives or scallions (green onions).

Pollination: Elephant Garlic is self-incompatible = cross pollinated. Seed production is difficult — all of the bulbils must be removed from the flower heads to force the plant to set seeds. Many seeds are sterile or will not germinate.

Adaptation: Elephant garlic may be grown in most any temperate climate with a frost-free growing season of approximately 4 months = 120 days. Elephant garlic is cold hardy to -20 degrees Fahrenheit. In severely cold climates protect bulbs with 8 inches of mulch and cloches, cold frames, plastic tunnels, or greenhouses.

Vernalization: Elephant garlic has a minimum “chilling requirement” of 6 weeks at temperatures below 40 degrees Fahrenheit. If gardening in sub-tropical climates, store bulbs in a refrigerator for at least 42 days before planting. Plants that are not properly chilled will not form bulbs.

Propagation: Elephant garlic is most commonly increased by separating mature (2-year-old) bulbs into cloves. Cloves planted in late Autumn form giant bulbs the following Summer. Cloves planted in Spring produce smaller round bulbs without cloves. Bulbils (tiny bulbs in flower heads) and corms (tiny underground bulblets) can also be planted but these will not grow large the first year. It takes 3 years to produce giant bulbs from bulbils or corms. (First year bulbs are small and round, without cloves. Second year bulbs are larger. Third year bulbs are “giants” and form cloves). Elephant garlic is a biennial plant = it grows leaves the first year and flowers the second year. In a flower garden, elephant garlic is often treated as a perennial; divide clumps with a sharp knife when plants get too crowded.

Leaf Shape: Elephant garlic has broad, flat leaves 1 to 3 inches wide (unlike onions that have hollow, tubular foliage).

Height: Average plants grow 2 to 3 feet tall. Exceptional specimens may reach 4 to 5 feet high when grown under ideal conditions.

Flower Type: Elephant garlic has a spherical umbel comprised of many tiny flowers. Typical flower heads may contain 50 to 100 florets.

Flower Color: Purple is the most common flower color. Lavender, pink, and white flowers are rare = not often seen.

Bulb Color: White.

Bulb Size: 3 to 4 inches diameter = approximately 9 to 12 inches circumference. Largest bulbs are big like a softball.

Bulb Weight: Mature bulbs average 5 to 8 ounces when grown in fields. Elephant garlic planted in raised beds is heavier = up to 1 pound. Under ideal conditions, elephant garlic bulbs may reach 3 pounds.

Clove Weight: Average cloves weigh 1.14 to 2.0 ounces each = 8 to 14 cloves per pound. Enormous cloves can reach nearly 4 ounces.

Planting Date: Plant elephant garlic the first week of November. Planting earlier or later decreases bulb size significantly.

Planting Depth: Handle cloves gently to avoid damage. Set cloves pointy end up, 4 to 6 inches deep.

Days to Maturity: 180 to 240 days for Autumn planted elephant garlic. In Austria, we figure on 8 months from planting to harvest. Elephant garlic planted in the first week of November will normally mature by the last week in June. (In warmer climates elephant garlic may ripen in 7 or 7 months). Spring planted elephant garlic matures in 90 days but the bulbs are smaller and will not form cloves.

Spacing: In raised beds plant elephant garlic 1 foot apart equidistantly. Wide spacing is necessary to promote maximum air flow for disease control. In open fields, set cloves 8 inches apart in rows spaced 14 to 18 inches apart.

Plant Density: 208 rows per acre x 208 plants per row = 43,264 plants per acre at 1 foot equidistant spacing. Practical density = 20,000 to 22,000 bulbs per acre when grown in raised beds. (Aisles between beds take about half of available land). In open fields, elephant garlic is planted more densely: 8 inches in row spacing x 14 inches between row spacing = 178 rows per acre x 469 plants per row = 83,482 plants per acre = 0.52 square feet per plant = 8.66 inches x 8.66 inches equidistant spacing (maximum density).

Agronomy Note: Growers can manage for large bulbs OR high yields, not both. For large bulbs, space widely in raised beds. For high yields, space closely in fields.

Rooting System: Elephant garlic has coarse, shallow roots that rarely grow deeper than 8 inches where soils are plowed. Plants rely on symbiotic fungi to supply water and minerals.

Soil: Elephant garlic grows best in deep soils with plentiful organic matter (to encourage maximum growth of beneficial fungi). Raised beds should be at least 18 inches deep for commercial production, especially in dry climates. (Soil volume is directly related to crop yield. More soil = bigger harvests).

Soil Mix: 3 parts topsoil + 3 parts peat moss or compost + 3 parts well-rotted bark or decayed wood chips + 1 part coarse sand or similar drainage material = 10 total parts by volume. The key is to have sufficient coarse materials (bark, chips, sand) to provide maximum aeration and drainage. Low sand content makes this mixture “earthworm friendly”.

Beneficial Fungi: “Good farmers grow fungi. The fungi grow the crops”. Cool temperatures (deep mulch) + constant moisture (drip irrigation is ideal) + plenty of air (lots of coarse materials for drainage) + organic matter (compost or manure) = enormous populations of symbiotic fungi. More fungi = happy plants = higher yields.

Drainage: Elephant garlic will not tolerate “wet feet”. Trench fields or plant on top of the ground where soils are dense and heavy.

Earthworms: Elephant garlic grows best in soils with large earthworm populations = 48 worms per cubic foot = 2,000,000 earthworms per acre. Earthworms do not like sand or gravel. For best results, soils should not contain more than 10% to 13% sand by volume = 1 inch of sand mixed with 8 to 10 inches of topsoil. Earthworms eat organic matter. Manage soils for maximum carbon content: Plant cover crops; mulch deeply; use organic fertilizers like manure and compost.

Mulch: Elephant garlic does not compete well against weeds. Do not cultivate soils; tillage encourages weed growth. Instead, apply 8 inches of loose mulch. This settles to about 4 inches deep in a few weeks. For best results use wet or shredded tree leaves or other organic materials like rotted wood chips, composted bark, spoiled hay, green chop (weeds), or pine needles. If any wees poke through the mulch, smother them with more mulch. Pull aside mulch just enough to set cloves in the ground. When plants are well established tuck mulch close to their stems.

How to Make Compost: 6 parts brown plant materials + 4 parts green plant materials or manure = 10 total parts by volume. For best results, shred leaves, bark, and wood chips before composting. Spread materials 1 foot = 12 inches deep over soil surface. Large quantities can be mixed with a rear-tine rototiller. Cold composting is essential for success. Do not exceed 1 foot depth or compost will heat up and become anaerobic. Cover compost with burlap or landscape fabric to provide shade. In hot weather, mist surface 5 minutes daily to keep compost moist. Let materials rot 1 full year before use. Finished product meets biological farming standards for “low temperature, aerobic, fungal-dominant compost”.

Agronomy Note: For long-term storage, broadcast cover crop seed mix over compost surface. Live roots feed soil micro-organisms and keep compost biologically active.

Fertilizer: Elephant garlic thrives in rich soils that contain about 150 pounds each of available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium per acre. A cover crop of clover supplies all of the nutrients required, or apply 1 inch of composted cow manure = 135 cubic yards per acre or approximately 1/2 gallon = 2.5 pounds (wet weight) per square foot. 4 dairy or beef cows produce sufficient manure and bedding to make compost for 1 acre. If compost is not available, spread fresh manure then cover with mulch to prevent flies and odor. Is is good practice to use organic fertilizers whenever practical. Chemical fertilizers kill soil bacteria and repel earthworms. If you must use synthetic fertilizers, apply these in small amounts throughout the growing season. Sprinkle fertilizers over the mulch. Rain will wash nutrients through the mulch into the soil.

Lime: Elephant garlic grows best in slightly acidic soils = pH 6.5 to 6.8. Broadcast 1/2 to 1 ton of agricultural limestone, wood ash, or crushed shells per acre, yearly = approximately 1/3 to 3/4 ounce per square foot.

Irrigation: Elephant garlic needs 1 inch of rainfall or irrigation weekly or bulbs will be small.

Pruning: Remove flower stalks so bulbs grow larger.

Insect Control: Interplant elephant garlic with other crops. Plant mixtures repel insect pests. Alternate raised beds with botanically unrelated species. Sow at least 8 different crops per acre in narrow strips or raised beds. Seed wildflowers around fields and every 10th row. Plants may also be protected with gauze, cheesecloth, mosquito netting, window screening, or floating row covers.

Old Farmers’ Trick: Sprinkle a few carrot seeds around each elephant garlic bulb. Carrots and garlic protect each other from insect pests. This technique also works with onions.

Disease Control: Elephant garlic is especially susceptible to soil diseases. Always plant elephant garlic on new land. Use 7-year rotations. Do not precede or follow garlic with botanically related species: Chives, leeks, onions, ramps, or shallots. Trench fields or grow bulbs on top of the ground to ensure good drainage. Space plants widely for maximum sunlight and ventilation.

Wildlife Control: Most “critters” do not like the smell or taste of elephant garlic. Deer, rabbits, and voles will NOT eat elephant garlic, so animal control is rarely a problem in gardens or commercial vegetable farms.

Windbreaks: Install windbreaks every 50 feet to protect plants from sand blasting and storm damage. Burlap, corn stalks, old seed bags, landscape fabric, or similar materials are ideal for this purpose.

Shade: In desert climates, plant elephant garlic under palm trees or light shade cloth to prevent sunburn.

Harvest: Pull bulbs when plants are half-dead = 50% yellow. Cut off roots then use a soft brush to remove excess dirt from bulbs. Handle bulbs gently; damaged bulbs rot in storage. Do not wash bulbs or they will rot. Dry bulbs on screens or hang like socks on a line for maximum ventilation. Always dry garlic in the shade; sunburned bulbs will rot. The curing (drying) process takes 4 to 8 weeks depending on temperature, humidity, and prevailing winds. If weather is rainy, use fans to prevent mold growth.

Yield: 1 giant bulb per square foot of planting surface. A raised bed measuring 3 feet x 10 feet = 30 square feet of usable surface area = 30 bulbs or about 30 pounds of elephant garlic, maximum weight. Yields in open fields are highly variable: 6,000 to 11,000 pounds per acre (dryland) or 10,000 to 15,000 pounds per acre (irrigated fields).

Agronomy Note: Closely spaced cloves planted in open fields yield many smaller bulbs, 5 to 8 ounces each. Cloves widely spaced in raised beds yield fewer but larger bulbs, 8 to 16 ounces each. In the United States, there is no national standard for size or weight of elephant garlic. Each grower must decide “How big is an Elephant Garlic bulb”?

Rule-of-Thumb: Yield of elephant garlic = 4 to 7 times weight of cloves planted. 4x = low yield. 7x = high yield. 5x to 6x = average yield. Example: 2,000 pounds of cloves planted in open fields should produce 8,000 to 14,000 pounds of bulbs.

Storage: Keep elephant garlic in a cool, dry, shaded place with good air flow. Ideal storage temperature = 45 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit. Bulbs may be braided and hung from ceilings or rafters as convenient. Well-cured elephant garlic will keep 10 months in a common household kitchen.

Would You Like to Know More? For more information on biological farming and vegetable crops, please visit: http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com — or — send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania 15108 United States of America — or — send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com.

About the Author: Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 crops yearly speeds development of new plant varieties).

Index Terms: Elephant Garlic (Allium ampeloprasum).

Publication Date: July 2023, Homestead, Florida.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 0

Orange Oil and Vinegar Herbicide

Orange oil is cheap here in Florida. Industrial strength vinegar is not so cheap. But the two combined make an effective “burn down” herbicide that is cost competitive with other more toxic synthetic vegicides.

Orange Oil 1 quart = 0.25 gallon

12% Ascetic Acid (Vinegar) 16 quarts = 4 gallons

Pure Water 11 quarts = 2.75 gallons

Total Volume = 28 quarts = 7 gallons per acre.

Burn down herbicides work by dissolving the waxy coating on cell walls. The cells leak water and die by dehydration.

Note: Burn down herbicides are not translocated; they will not move through a plant and do not kill roots. Perennial weeds with deep tap roots may require multiple applications.

Orange oil and vinegar herbicide works well on grasses and broadleaf weeds. For best results use fine mist nozzles and spray on a calm, sunny day. Herbicide may be used with roller-crimpers to kill mulch crops prior to no-till planting grains or vegetables.

To kill cover crops by crimping or mowing, the plants must be in their reproductive growth phase = 100% flowering or early seed filling. Sometimes it is not practical to wait this long if seasons or rotations are short. Where time is limited, it makes sense to use herbicides AND mowing or crimping to terminate mulch crops. This ensures a 100% kill rate for plants still in their vegetative growth phase.

It is good practice to use organic herbicides whenever practical. Synthetic vegicides are often more costly and have toxic side effects.

Related Publications: Organic Herbicides.

Other Articles of Interest: “Can Sunnhemp Outgrow Morning Glory?”; Crops Among the Weeds; Living Mulches for Weed Control; Managing Weeds as Cover Crops; Planting Maize with Living Mulches; Trash Farming; Weed Seed Meal Fertilizer; Wildcrafted Potatoes.

Would You Like to Know More? For more information on biological agriculture and weed control, please visit: http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com — or — send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania 15108 United States of America — or — send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com.

About the Author: Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania in summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

Index Terms: Cover Crops; Herbicides; Mulch-in-Place; Orange = Citrus sinensis; Orange Oil; Vegicides; Vinegar = Ascetic Acid; Weed Control; Weed Killers.

Original Publication Date: June 2023 Venus, Florida.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 0

COW MANURE POTTING SOIL

When I was a boy, everyone told me that manure must be composted before use. The alternative was land application in fall so dung could “mellow” over winter. “Never use fresh manure or bad things will happen”. Confident in my wisdom, I carried this lesson with me to India where I promptly discovered that everything I had been taught was WRONG. My little world was turned upside down. Since then, I have developed a healthy skepticism of advice from die Experten.

Most Indian forests were cut down centuries ago. Consequently, there is a great shortage of firewood. Dried cow manure is widely used as a substitute fuel.

Women shape fresh manure into disks about the size of a round cake pan. The “cow pies” are slapped up against a mud brick wall where they stick and dry in the sun. 3 days of intense Indian heat bakes the manure into dehydrated cakes that are stacked and sold in local village markets.

Half of India eats food cooked over cow manure fires. Many of the vegetables are also grown in dried cow manure. The process is simple: Crumble dried manure with your hands. Fill raised beds or containers with cow manure “potting soil”. Poke in some seeds or transplants. Add water and wait for Mother Nature to work her biological miracles.

Everything grows. Nothing fails. There are no weeds or bugs. No tools or machinery are needed, and you do not have to buy fertilizer or chemicals. There is no work other than planting, watering, and harvesting.

I have been using dehydrated cow manure for the better part of a century now, and I still do not understand how it works. My guess is that hot sunlight “cooks” or pasteurizes manure yielding a rough, instant compost that grows anything from bananas to watermelons.

I used to mix great piles of sand, peat, and earth to make potting soil. Now, I get manure from my neighbor and dry it on screens in a glasshouse. My operating costs have dropped significantly and I no longer have to worry about nematodes, crop rotation, or “sick greenhouse syndrome”. All plants are grown in freshly dried manure. Crops wastes and old “soil” are spread on gardens or fields. Insect and disease cycles are permanently broken.

I work in my hoop houses without gloves, respirator, or moon suit. I do not have to worry about chemicals in my food or my lungs. At my age, that is a considerable benefit.

So far, I have not found a “down side” to sun dried cow manure. It is far superior and much less costly than any potting soil I can buy or make.

Related Publications: Biological Agriculture in Temperate Climates; Burbank’s Seed Germination Mix; Dutch Potting Soil; Hot Versus Cold Composting; Swamp Potatoes; Wildcrafted Potatoes; Worm Farming.

Would You Like to Know More? For more information about composting or greenhouse management, please visit: http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com — or — send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania 15108 United States of America — or — send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com.

About the Author: Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

Index Terms: Ayurvedic Agriculture; Cow Manure; Crop Rotation; Greenhouse Management; Insect Control; Nematode Control; Potting Soil; Sick Greenhouse Syndrome; Weed Control.

Original Publication Date: February 2005, Meyersdale, Pennsylvania.

Updated: June 2023 Venus, Florida.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 1

SWAMP POTATOES

What is It? The trick to growing spuds on wet land is to plant tubers ABOVE the soil surface (not below ground or on top of the mud).

I receive about 20 e-mails daily. This time of year, many of them whine about soggy soils and delayed planting. Hot news flash: The season to deal with wet fields is in Autumn when you dig trenches, build raised beds, and plant cover crops. That said, it is possible to garden in the muck. My ancestors learned how to do this centuries ago. Then, all of the good land was owned by the rich. My people got an abandoned stone quarry and a few acres of seasonal marsh. From this they built a profitable business. Nine centuries later, my family is still farming the same land. Get your boots on and I will show you how it’s done.

How To Do It: Spread 8 inches of leaves or other organic mulch on TOP of the ground. If you do not have enough materials to achieve a depth of 8 inches, use whatever is at hand. The point is to keep seed potatoes ABOVE the soil surface so they are not sitting in water or touching mud. Potatoes planted on the soil surface will ROT.

Use whole seed potatoes the size of an egg, about 2 to 3 ounces each. Green potatoes better resist insects, diseases, and mice. Space potatoes 2 feet apart equidistantly.

Cover seed potatoes with another 8 inches of leaves, straw, spoiled hay or other waste vegetation. If you are gardening near a slough (pronounced “slew”), use rushes and aquatic weeds for mulch. In Austria we use mostly rotted bark, green weeds, composted wood chips, and pine needles. Anything organic grows a good crop of spuds.

Old Farmers Trick: If you have a range of materials from fresh to rotted, put the older, decomposed mulch on the bottom. Lay newer mulch on top. If you have any manure, spread it like a sandwich between the bottom and top mulch layers. Mulch will settle to approximately half of its original depth within a month or two.

Fertilizer is not essential but if you have some, sprinkle it over the top mulch. Caution: Apply chemical fertilizers in small doses throughout the growing season. NEVER spread chemical fertilizers on bare soil. Always apply artificial fertilizers to growing plants. (Fertilizers are wasted if live roots are not present to absorb nutrients). Prefer organic fertilizers whenever practical. Synthetic nutrients unbalance soil microbes and attract insect pests. Excess nitrogen yields low quality potatoes that taste poorly and do not keep well.

There is no other work until harvest. Wait until vines are dead then gather tubers by HAND (no forks, rakes, or spades). Do not wash potatoes or they will rot. Let spuds dry a few days in the sunlight then place them in well-ventilated baskets or crates. Store potatoes in a deep cellar or other cool, dark place. Note: Always handle potatoes GENTLY. Cut, bruised, or otherwise damaged tubers will ROT in storage.

Average swamp potatoes yield 2 to 3 pounds of tubers per plant — without plowing, trenching, digging, hoeing, fertilizer, fungicides, soil fumigants, herbicides, insecticides, or irrigation.

Agronomy Notes: Potatoes are highly susceptible to nematodes and soil diseases. (Nematodes are tiny parasitic worms that suck root juice). Move your potato garden every year. ALWAYS plant spuds on fresh ground. Use long rotations: It takes 7 years to kill nematodes and pathogenic microbes.

If you are literally sinking in the mud (our neighbor lost his tractor in the marsh) try some form of RAISED FIELD technology like chinampas or hugel. Mulch will deal with wet land but not a flooded polder.

Remember: On wet ground, always plant potatoes ABOVE the soil surface. Use lots of mulch to keep tubers from touching mud.

Related Publications: Historic Hugelkultur; Hot Potato; Spanish Potato Trials, Salzburg, Austria 1650; Upside Down Potatoes; and Wildcrafted Potatoes.

Other Articles of Interest: Biological Agriculture in Temperate Climates; Crop Rotation Primer; Crops Among the Weeds; Earthworm Primer; Managing Weeds as Cover Crops; Trash Farming; Worm Farming.

Would You Like to Know More? For more information on biological agriculture and potato growing, please visit: http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com — or — send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania 15108 United States of America — or — send an e-mail to worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com.

About the Author: Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania in summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new plant varieties).

Index Terms: Continuous Mulching; Crop Rotation; Deep Mulching; Marshes; Mulching; Nematodes; Potato (Solanum tuberosum); Potato Gardens; Raised Beds; Seasonal Wetlands; Sheet Composting; Swamps; Year-Round Mulching; Wetlands.

Related Subjects: Chinampas; Hugelkultur; Raised Fields; Planting Mounds; Sukakollus; Waru-Waru.

Original Publication Date: June 2023, Miami, Florida.

Posted on by Eric Koperek 0